Advanced Textile Testing Techniques

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Editors -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Introduction to Textile Testing -- 1.1 What Is Textile Testing? -- 1.2 Objectives of Textile Testing -- 1.3 Types of Textile Testing -- 1.4 Importance of Textile Testing -- 1.5 Importance of Standards -- 1.6 Sampling Techniques -- 1.6.1 Sampling -- 1.6.2 Sampling Techniques -- 1.6.2.1 Zoning Technique -- 1.6.2.2 Core Sampling -- 1.6.2.3 Random Sampling -- 1.6.2.4 Sampling Errors -- 1.6.2.5 Sources of Error -- 1.7 Statistical Terms -- References -- Chapter 2: Polymer Testing Methods for Conventional and Technical Textiles -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Characterization Approaches -- 2.3 Morphological Analysis -- 2.3.1 Gel Permeation Chromatography -- 2.3.1.1 Theory and Principle of Measurement -- 2.3.1.2 Experimental Protocol -- 2.3.1.3 Components of GPC Instrumentation -- 2.3.1.4 Solvent Selection for Various Polymers Including Textiles -- 2.3.1.5 Data Acquisition and Interpretation -- 2.3.1.6 Calibration of GPC Instrument -- 2.3.1.7 Applications of GPC -- 2.4 Thermal Analysis -- 2.4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis -- 2.4.1.1 Theory and Principle of Measurement and Instrumentation -- 2.4.1.2 Interpretation of TGA Thermograms for Various Transitions -- 2.4.1.3 Factors Affecting the TGA Results -- 2.4.1.4 Calibration of TGA Instruments -- 2.4.1.5 TGA Curve of Commodity and High Performance Fibers -- 2.4.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry -- 2.4.2.1 Theory and Principle of Measurement and Instrumentation -- 2.4.2.2 Interpretation of DSC Thermogram for Various Transitions -- 2.4.2.3 Factors Affecting DSC Results-A Case Study for Textile Fibers -- 2.4.2.4 DSC Thermograms of Natural and Synthetic Fibers -- 2.5 Rheological Analysis

2.5.1 High Pressure Capillary Rheometry -- 2.5.1.1 Theory and Principle of Measurement -- 2.5.1.2 Correcting Capillary Flow for Non-Newtonian Polymer Melts -- 2.5.1.2.1 Money Analysis for Correction in Flow Rate due to Slip at Walls -- 2.5.1.2.2 Bagley Correction for Pressure Drop due to Entrance and Exit Effects -- 2.5.1.2.3 Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch Correction for Shear Rate due to Nonparabolic Velocity Profile/Non-Newtonian Effects -- 2.5.1.3 Protocol to Perform Capillary Rheometry -- 2.5.2 Melt Flow Index -- 2.5.3 Rotational Steady and Dynamic Mode Rheometry -- 2.5.4 Concentric Cylinder or Couettes Rheometers -- 2.5.5 Cone and Plate Rheometers -- 2.5.6 Parallel Plate Rheometers -- 2.5.7 Torsional Dynamic Mechanical Analyzers -- References -- Chapter 3: Advanced Characterization Techniques: Conventional and Technical Textiles -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy -- 3.2.1 Theory and Principle of SEM -- 3.2.2 Electron Beam and Specimen Interaction (Electron Scattering) -- 3.2.2.1 Emission of Backscattered and Secondary Electrons -- 3.2.2.2 Electron Beam-Induced Current and Cathodoluminescence (CL) -- 3.2.3 Basic Components of SEM Instrumentation -- 3.2.3.1 Electron Guns -- 3.2.3.2 Anodes -- 3.2.3.3 Vacuum and Pumping System -- 3.2.3.4 Electromagnetic Lenses -- 3.2.3.5 Aperture and Deflection (Scanning) Coil -- 3.2.3.6 Electron Detectors -- 3.2.3.7 Signal Processing and Image Contrast -- 3.2.3.8 Magnification, Resolution, and Depth of Field -- 3.2.4 Sample Preparation for SEM -- 3.2.5 Applications of SEM -- 3.3 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy -- 3.3.1 Theory and Principle of EDX Measurement and Instrumentation -- 3.3.1.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer -- 3.3.1.1.1 Detector Crystals -- 3.3.1.1.2 Detection Process -- 3.3.2 Data Processing and Analysis Sensitivity

3.3.3 Elemental Analysis and Imaging with X-Rays -- 3.3.4 Applications of EDX Analysis -- 3.4 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis -- 3.4.1 Generation of Characteristic X-Rays and Their Interaction with Matter -- 3.4.2 Theory and Principle of Measurement -- 3.4.3 Experimental Setup and Instrumentation -- 3.4.3.1 Sample Preparation for XRD Analysis -- 3.4.3.2 Instrumental Setups -- 3.4.4 XRD Spectra of Crystalline Assemblies in Powder Form -- 3.4.4.1 Peak Position -- 3.4.4.2 Peak Intensity -- 3.4.4.3 Peak Profile -- 3.4.5 WAXD Analysis of Polymeric (Fibrous) Structures -- 3.4.6 SAXS Analysis of Polymeric Structures -- 3.5 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy -- 3.5.1 Theory and Principle of Measurement -- 3.5.2 Transmission-Absorption IR Spectroscopy -- 3.5.2.1 Instrumentation -- 3.5.2.2 Sample Preparation -- 3.5.3 Reflective IR Spectroscopy: Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR) -- 3.5.3.1 Instrumentation -- 3.5.3.2 Sample Handling -- 3.5.4 FTIR Spectrum Interpretation and Manipulation -- 3.5.4.1 Spectral Subtraction -- 3.5.4.2 Spectral Derivation -- 3.5.4.3 Peaks Deconvolutions -- 3.5.5 Applications of FTIR-ATR -- 3.6 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy -- 3.6.1 Working Principle -- 3.6.2 Applications of AAS -- 3.7 Thermal and Water Vapor Resistivity -- 3.8 Moisture Management -- 3.9 Air Permeability -- 3.10 IR Thermography -- References -- Section I: Testing of Conventional Textiles -- Chapter 4: Textile Fibers -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Fiber Classification -- 4.3 Fiber Identification Methods -- 4.3.1 Physical -- 4.3.2 Chemical -- 4.4 Physical Properties -- 4.4.1 Length and Length Uniformity -- 4.4.2 Moisture Regain -- 4.4.3 Trash Content -- 4.4.4 Cross-Sectional Shape of the Fiber -- 4.4.5 Fiber Color -- 4.4.6 Fiber Fineness -- 4.4.7 Fiber Crimp -- 4.5 Mechanical Properties -- 4.5.1 Fiber Strength -- 4.5.2 Tenacity

4.6 Chemical Properties -- 4.6.1 Blend Ratio -- 4.6.2 Maturity Ratio -- 4.6.3 Chemical Composition -- References -- Chapter 5: Textile Yarns -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.1.1 Sampling -- 5.2 Yarn Classification -- 5.3 Linear Density of Yarn -- 5.3.1 Direct System -- 5.3.2 Indirect System -- 5.3.3 Measurement of Linear Density -- 5.4 Tensile Properties of Yarn -- 5.4.1 Types of Tensile Strength Testing Machines -- 5.4.1.1 Constant Rate of Extension (CRE) -- 5.4.1.2 Constant Rate of Loading (CRL) -- 5.4.1.3 Constant Rate of Traverse (CRT) -- 5.4.2 Tensile Strength of Yarn by Skein Method -- 5.4.2.1 Count Strength Product or CLSP -- 5.4.3 Tensile Strength by Single Yarn Method -- 5.4.3.1 Test Procedure -- 5.5 Evaluation of Yarn Twist -- 5.5.1 Effect of Twist on Strength of Yarn -- 5.5.1.1 Short Staple Yarn -- 5.5.1.2 Continuous Filament Yarns -- 5.5.2 Effect of Twist on Yarn and Fabric Properties -- 5.5.3 Twist Directions -- 5.5.3.1 Z-Twist -- 5.5.3.2 S-Twist -- 5.5.4 Types of Fabrics with Respect to Different Types of Twist -- 5.5.5 Twist Measurement -- 5.5.5.1 Simple/Direct Counting Method -- 5.5.5.1.1 Sampling -- 5.5.5.1.2 Spun Single Yarn -- 5.5.5.1.3 Filament Single Yarns -- 5.5.5.1.4 Folded Yarn -- 5.5.5.2 Continuous Twist Tester -- 5.5.5.3 Untwist and Retwist Method -- 5.5.5.4 Automatic Twist Tester -- 5.6 Evaluation of Evenness of Yarn -- 5.6.1 Visual Examination -- 5.6.2 Cut and Weigh Method -- 5.6.3 USTER Evenness Tester -- 5.7 Classification of Yarn Faults -- 5.7.1 Imperfection Index (IPI) -- 5.7.2 Coefficient of Variation of Mass (CV%) -- 5.7.3 Hairiness Index (H) -- 5.7.4 Periodic Faults -- 5.7.5 Classimate Faults -- 5.7.6 Yarn Slub Test -- 5.8 Yarn Friction -- 5.8.1 Measurement of Yarn Friction -- 5.9 Yarn Diameter -- 5.9.1 Measurement of Yarn Diameter -- References

Chapter 6: Textile Greige Fabrics (Woven and Knitted) -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Classification -- 6.2.1 Woven Fabric -- 6.2.2 Basic Types of Woven Fabrics -- 6.2.2.1 Plain -- 6.2.2.2 Twill -- 6.2.2.3 Satin and Sateen -- 6.2.3 Knitted Fabrics -- 6.2.4 Types of Knitting -- 6.2.4.1 Weft Knitting -- 6.2.4.2 Warp Knitting -- 6.3 Fabric Aerial Density/Grams per Square Meter -- 6.3.1 Introduction -- 6.3.2 Measurement of GSM -- 6.4 Fabric Tensile Properties -- 6.4.1 Tensile Strength of Woven Fabric -- 6.4.1.1 Tensile Breaks -- 6.4.1.1.1 Sharp Break -- 6.4.1.1.2 Percentage Break -- 6.4.1.1.3 Initial Modulus (IM) -- 6.4.1.2 Methods -- 6.4.2 Tear Strength of Woven Fabric -- 6.4.2.1 Measurement of Tear Strength -- 6.4.3 Bursting Strength of Knitted Fabric -- 6.5 Fabric Stiffness -- 6.5.1 Introduction -- 6.5.2 Cantilever Test Method -- 6.5.3 Stiffness of Fabric by the Circular Bend Procedure -- 6.6 Fabric Drape -- 6.6.1 Introduction -- 6.6.2 Method for Testing Fabric Drapability -- 6.7 Fabric Skew and Bow -- 6.7.1 Introduction -- 6.7.2 Reasons for Skew and Bow -- 6.7.3 Method for Measuring Fabric Bow and Skew -- 6.7.3.1 Bow Measuring Procedure -- 6.7.3.2 Skew Measuring Procedure -- 6.8 Fabric Inspection -- 6.8.1 Significance of Inspection -- 6.8.2 Fabric Rejection Parameters -- 6.8.3 Classification of Faults -- 6.8.3.1 American System -- 6.8.3.2 Japanese System -- 6.8.4 Grading Method -- 6.8.5 Fabric Faults and Quality Assurance -- 6.8.6 Classification of Fabric Faults -- 6.8.6.1 Spinning Faults -- 6.8.6.2 Warping Faults -- 6.8.6.3 Sizing Faults -- 6.8.6.4 Looming Faults -- References -- Chapter 7: Textile Dyed and Finished Fabric -- 7.1 Color Fastness Properties -- 7.1.1 Color Fastness to Rubbing -- 7.1.2 Color Fastness to Washing -- 7.1.3 Color Fastness to Light -- 7.1.4 Color Fastness to Perspiration

7.1.5 Color Fastness to Sublimation