Electrical Power Systems

Front Cover -- Electrical Power Systems -- Copyright Page -- Dedication -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Structure of a Power System -- 1.2 Effects of System Voltage on Efficiency -- 2 The Line Parameters -- 2.1 The Line Resistance -- 2.2 The Line Inductance -- 2.2.1 Inductance Due to Internal Flux -- 2.2.2 Inductance Due to External Flux Linkages -- 2.2.3 Inductance of a Single-Phase Line -- 2.2.4 Flux Linkages in a Group of Conductors -- 2.2.5 Inductance Between Conductor Groups: Self and Mutual Geometric Mean Distance -- 2.2.6 Inductance of Three-Phase Lines Symmetrical Spacing -- 2.2.7 Three-Phase Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing -- 2.3 Transposition of Transmission Lines -- 2.4 Inductance of a Transposed Three-Phase Line -- 2.5 Bundle Conductors -- 2.6 Inductance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing and Transposition -- 2.7 Capacitance of Transmission Lines -- 2.7.1 Potential Difference Between Two Points Due to an Electric Charge -- 2.7.2 Capacitance of a Two-Conductor Line -- 2.7.3 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line With Symmetric Spacing -- 2.7.4 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing -- 2.8 Capacitance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Symmetrical Spacing -- 2.9 Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Transmission Lines -- 2.10 Effect of Earth Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line -- 2.11 Capacitance of Three-Phase Line Including Effect of Earth -- 2.12 Skin Effect and Proximity Effect -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 3 Mechanical Design -- 3.1 Sag and Tension Calculations -- 3.2 Approximate Relations for Sag and Tension -- 3.3 Conductors Supported at Different Levels -- 3.4 Effect of Wind on Sag -- 3.5 Effect of Ice Coating on Sag -- 3.6 Conductor Materials -- 3.6.1 Stranded Conductors -- 3.7 Vibrations of Conductors

3.8 Stringing Chart -- 3.9 Sag Template -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 4 Insulators -- 4.1 Types of Insulators -- 4.2 Pin Type Insulators -- 4.3 Suspension Type or Disc Insulators -- 4.4 Strain Insulators -- 4.5 Voltage Distribution in String Insulators -- 4.6 String Efficiency -- 4.7 Methods for Improving String Efficiency -- 4.7.1 Selection of m -- 4.7.2 Grading of Units -- 4.7.3 Static Shielding or Grading Ring -- 4.8 Testing of Insulators -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 5 Corona and Interference -- 5.1 Disruptive Critical Voltage -- 5.2 Visual Critical Voltage (Vv) -- 5.3 Potential Gradient -- 5.4 Power Loss Due to Corona -- 5.5 Factors Influencing Corona Loss -- 5.6 Interference -- 5.6.1 Electromagnetic Effect -- 5.6.2 Electrostatic Effect -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 6 Performance of Transmission Lines -- 6.1 Classification of Lines -- 6.1.1 Short Lines -- 6.1.2 Medium Lines -- 6.1.3 Long Lines -- 6.2 The Short Transmission Line -- 6.2.1 Voltage Regulation of a Transmission Line -- 6.2.2 Efficiency of a Transmission Line -- 6.3 Mixed Conditions -- 6.4 Maximum Power Transfer -- 6.5 Medium Transmission Lines -- 6.5.1 Localized Capacitance at the Load End -- 6.5.2 Nominal T-method -- 6.5.3 Nominal [pi]-Method -- 6.6 The Long Transmission Line -- 6.7 Generalized Circuit Constants -- 6.8 Equivalent T- and [pi]-Circuits -- 6.9 Evaluation of A B C D Parameters -- 6.10 Surge Impedance Loading -- 6.11 Ferranti Effect -- 6.12 Power Relations in Transmission Lines -- 6.13 Power Circle Diagrams -- 6.13.1 Receiving End Power Circle Diagram -- 6.13.2 Sending End Power Circle Diagram -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 7 Cables -- 7.1 Types of Cables -- 7.2 Cable Insulation -- 7.3 Electrostatic Stress in Single-Core Cable -- 7.4 Grading of Cables -- 7.4.1 Intersheath Grading -- 7.4.2 Capacitance Grading

7.5 Capacitance of the Cable -- 7.6 Capacitance of Three-Core Cables -- 7.7 Insulation Resistance of Cables -- 7.8 Breakdown of Cables -- 7.9 Thermal Phenomenon in Cables -- 7.10 Sheath Loss -- 7.11 Thermal Resistance -- 7.12 Current Rating of the Cable -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 8 High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission -- 8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission -- 8.2 High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission System -- 8.2.1 Line-Commutated Converters -- 8.2.2 Voltage Source Converter -- 8.2.3 Converter Transformers -- 8.2.4 Conductor Systems -- Questions -- 9 Substations and Neutral Grounding -- 9.1 Service Requirements-Based Classification -- 9.2 Construction Feature-Wise Classification -- 9.3 Substation Equipment -- 9.4 Factors Governing Layout of Substations -- 9.5 Station Transformer -- 9.6 Batteries -- 9.7 Earthing in Substations -- 9.8 Elements to be Earthed in a Substation -- 9.9 Power System Earthing -- 9.10 Earthing Transformers -- 9.11 Bus Bar Arrangements -- 9.12 Neutral Grounding -- 9.13 Ungrounded System -- 9.14 Solid Grounding -- 9.15 Resistance Grounding -- 9.16 Reactance Grounding -- 9.17 Effective Grounding -- 9.18 Gas-Insulated Substations -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 10 Distribution System -- 10.1 Effects of Voltage on the Conductor Volume -- 10.1.1 Radial and Ring Mains -- 10.2 Direct Current Distribution System -- 10.3 Distributor Fed From One End -- 10.4 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at the Same Voltage -- 10.5 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at Different Voltages -- 10.6 Uniformly Loaded Distributor Fed From One End -- 10.7 Copper Efficiencies -- 10.7.1 Same Maximum Voltage Between Conductor and Earth -- 10.7.2 Same Maximum Voltage Between Two Conductors -- 10.8 Alternating Current Distribution

10.8.1 Alternating Current Distributor Fed From One End -- 10.8.1.1 Concentrated Loads -- 10.9 Design of Feeder-Kelvin's Law -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 11 Overvoltages -- 11.1 External Causes -- 11.2 Lightning Phenomenon -- 11.3 Internal Causes -- 11.4 Attenuation of Traveling Waves -- 11.5 Surge Impedance and Velocity of Propagation -- 11.6 Reflection and Refraction Coefficients -- 11.7 Line Terminated Through Resistance -- 11.8 Line Terminated by Inductance -- 11.9 Line Terminated by Capacitance -- 11.10 Effect of Shunt Capacitance on Traveling Waves -- 11.11 Short-Circuited Line -- 11.12 Line Open Circuited at the Other End -- 11.13 Line Connected to a Cable -- 11.14 Line Terminated With Natural Impedance -- 11.15 Reflection and Refraction at a T-junction -- 11.16 Bewley Lattice Diagram -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 12 Protection Against Overvoltages -- 12.1 Ground Wire -- 12.2 Surge Diverters -- 12.2.1 Rod Gap -- 12.2.2 Expulsion Type Arresters -- 12.2.3 Valve Type Lightning Arresters -- 12.3 Horn Gap Arrester -- 12.4 Surge Absorber -- 12.5 Classification of Lightning Arresters -- 12.6 Rating of Lightning Arresters -- 12.7 Tow Footing Resistance -- 12.8 Insulation Coordination -- 12.8.1 The Standard Impulse Wave -- 12.8.2 Impulse Ratio -- 12.8.3 Basic Impulse Levels -- Questions -- 13 Graph Theory and Network Matrices -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Definitions -- 13.3 Tree and Cotree -- 13.4 Basic Loops -- 13.5 Cut-Set -- 13.6 Basic Cut-Sets -- 13.7 Incidence Matrices -- 13.8 Element-Node Incidence Matrix -- 13.9 Bus Incidence Matrix -- 13.10 Network Performance Equations -- 13.11 Bus Admittance Matrix and Bus Impedance Matrix -- 13.12 Bus Admittance Matrix by Direct Inspection -- Worked Examples -- Questions -- 14 Short-Circuit Analysis -- 14.1 Per-Unit Quantities -- 14.2 Advantages of Per-Unit System

14.3 Three-Phase Short Circuits -- 14.4 Reactance Diagrams -- 14.5 Percentage Values -- 14.6 Short-Circuit kVA -- 14.7 Importance of Short-Circuit Currents -- 14.8 Analysis of R-L Circuit -- 14.9 Three-Phase Short Circuit on an Unloaded Synchronous Generator -- 14.10 Effect of Load Current or Prefault Current -- 14.11 Reactors -- 14.12 Construction of Reactors -- 14.13 Classification of Reactors -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 15 Unbalanced Fault Analysis -- 15.1 The Operator "a"--15.2 Symmetrical Components of Unsymmetrical Phases -- 15.3 Power in Sequence Components -- 15.4 Unitary Transformation for Power Invariance -- 15.5 Sequence Impedances -- 15.6 Balanced Star-Connected Load -- 15.7 Transmission Lines -- 15.8 Sequence Impedances of Transformer -- 15.9 Sequence Reactances of Synchronous Machine -- 15.10 Sequence Networks of Synchronous Machines -- 15.10.1 Positive-Sequence Network -- 15.10.2 Negative-Sequence Network -- 15.10.3 Zero-Sequence Network -- 15.11 Unsymmetrical Faults -- 15.12 Assumptions for System Representation -- 15.13 Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator -- 15.14 Line-to-Line Fault -- 15.15 Double Line-to-Ground Fault -- 15.16 Single-Line to Ground Fault With Fault Impedance -- 15.17 Line-to-Line Fault With Fault Impedence -- 15.18 Double Line-to-Ground Fault With Fault Impedence -- Worked Examples -- Problems -- Questions -- 16 Circuit Breakers -- 16.1 Principle of Arc Extinction -- 16.2 Techniques for Arc Extinction -- 16.3 Formation and Maintenance of Arc -- 16.4 Arc Interruption by High Resistance -- 16.5 Transient Restriking and Recovery Voltages -- 16.6 Restriking Voltage -- 16.7 Classification of Circuit Breakers -- 16.7.1 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers -- 16.7.2 Oil Circuit Breaker -- 16.7.3 Air Circuit Breaker -- 16.7.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers -- 16.7.5 Sulfur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker

16.8 The Plain-Break Oil Circuit Breaker