Organic electronics

<p>Introduction ix</p> <p><b>Chapter 1 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes </b><b>1</b></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 1</p> <p>1.2 Reminders on optics 2</p> <p>1.2.1 Photometry and radiometry 2</p> <p>1.2.2 Colors 3</p> <p>1.3 OLED operating principle 6</p> <p>1.3.1 P-N junction LED 6</p> <p>1.3.2 OLEDs 15</p> <p>1.4 OLED applications 35</p> <p>1.4.1 OLEDs for lighting 36</p> <p>1.4.2 OLEDs for display 37</p> <p>1.4.3 OLEDs for automotive equipment 39</p> <p>1.5 Conclusion 40</p> <p><b>Chapter 2 Organic Solar Cells </b><b>41</b></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 41</p> <p>2.2 Solar spectrum 42</p> <p>2.3 Operating principle 44</p> <p>2.3.1 Absorption of photons 45</p> <p>2.3.2 Diffusion of excitons 46</p> <p>2.3.3 Dissociation of excitons 47</p> <p>2.3.4 Diffusion of carriers to electrodes 50</p> <p>2.3.5 Collection of charges 50</p> <p>2.3.6 Process optimization for an organic solar cell 50</p> <p>2.4 Characteristic parameters of solar cells 52</p> <p>2.4.1 Current-voltage characteristics 52</p> <p>2.4.2 Photovoltaic parameters of a solar cell 54</p> <p>2.4.3 Efficiency 57</p> <p>2.5 Organic materials 59</p> <p>2.5.1 Electron donor materials 59</p> <p>2.5.2 Electron acceptor materials 61</p> <p>2.6 P3HT:PCBM 63</p> <p>2.7 Perovskite 65</p> <p>2.7.1 Structure of perovskite 66</p> <p>2.7.2 Solar cells based on perovskite 67</p> <p>2.7.3 Conversion efficiency 69</p> <p>2.7.4 Problems with the use of perovskite solar cells 69</p> <p>2.8 Solar cells based on organic, hybrid and silicon materials 73</p> <p>2.9 Strategies to improve the performance of organic and hybrid solar cells 75</p> <p>2.9.1 Low bandgap semiconductors 76</p> <p>2.9.2 Tandem cells 78</p> <p>2.10 Conclusion 82</p> <p><b>Chapter 3 Organic Transistors </b><b>85</b></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 85</p> <p>3.2 Operating principle 86</p> <p>3.2.1 Transistor effect 87</p> <p>3.2.2 Field effect 88</p> <p>3.3 Principal OFET parameters 95</p> <p>3.3.1 Charge carrier mobility 96</p> <p>3.3.2 Contact resistance 97</p> <p>3.3.3 Hysteresis 101</p> <p>3.3.4 Gate-bias stress effects, VGS 102</p> <p>3.3.5 I_on/I_off current ratio 102</p> <p>3.4 Materials 103</p> <p>3.4.1 Metals used for electrodes 103</p> <p>3.4.2 Dielectric materials 104</p> <p>3.4.3 Active organic materials 109</p> <p>3.5 Ambipolar transistors and semiconductors 115</p> <p>3.5.1 Ambipolar semiconductors 115</p> <p>3.5.2 Ambipolar transistors 116</p> <p>3.6 Light-emitting transistors 118</p> <p>3.6.1 Ambipolar OLETs with BHJ structure 118</p> <p>3.6.2 Single-semiconductor ambipolar OLETs 118</p> <p>3.6.3 Vertical OLETs 120</p> <p>3.7 OFET applications 121</p> <p>3.7.1 RFID tags 121</p> <p>3.7.2 Sensors 122</p> <p>3.7.3 Active-matrix displays 123</p> <p>3.8 Conclusion 124</p> <p><b>Chapter 4 The Brabec Triangle </b><b>127</b></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 127</p> <p>4.2 Device efficiency 128</p> <p>4.2.1 OLED efficiency 128</p> <p>4.2.2 Solar cell efficiency 130</p> <p>4.2.3 OFET performance 133</p> <p>4.3 Stability of materials and devices 134</p> <p>4.3.1 Process of degradation of organic materials and devices 135</p> <p>4.3.2 Classification of device degradation mechanisms 137</p> <p>4.3.3 Degradation of OFETs 143</p> <p>4.3.4 Measuring the lifetime of devices 146</p> <p>4.4 Organic device production cost and marketing 151</p> <p>4.4.1 Production of OLEDs 152</p> <p>4.4.2 Production of OSCs 153</p> <p>4.4.3 Production of OFETs 155</p> <p>4.5 Synthesis on Brabec's criteria 156</p> <p>4.6 Environmental dimension 157</p> <p>4.6.1 Life-cycle assessment 158</p> <p>4.6.2 Levelized cost of energy 160</p> <p>4.6.3 Energy payback time 160</p> <p>4.6.4 Life cycle of organic solar cells 161</p> <p>4.6.5 Fate of released pollutants 162</p> <p>4.6.6 Mass production and environment 165</p> <p>4.7 Prospects and developments 167</p> <p>List of Acronyms 173</p> <p>References 181</p> <p>Index 197</p>