From ancient Mesopotamia into the 20th century, "the Circle of Justice" as a concept has pervaded Middle Eastern political thought and underpinned the exercise of power in the Middle East. The Circle of Justice depicts graphically how a government's justice toward the population…
From ancient Mesopotamia into the 20th century, "the Circle of Justice" as a concept has pervaded Middle Eastern political thought and underpinned the exercise of power in the Middle East. The Circle of Justice depicts graphically how a government's justice toward the population…
Customs dues or duties (Arabic maks , pl. mukūs > Aramaic maks ; Persian bāj, kurūj , or gumruk; Turkish gümrük > Latin commercio , Greek kommerkion ) in the premodern Islamic world were taxes or tolls on imports and exports paid at major ports and on caravan routes. These were …